{"title":"Plutarch’s Lives","translation":"Dryden translation, revised by A. H. Clough (1864), Project Gutenberg #674","intro":"Plutarch of Chaeronea (c. AD 46-after 119), a Greek philosopher and priest of Apollo at Delphi, wrote the Parallel Lives to set a Greek and a Roman side by side so that their virtues and vices could be compared. Twenty-three pairs survive, most followed by a short Comparison, with four single Lives. For centuries they were a school of character for statesmen, soldiers, and students; Shakespeare drew Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, and Coriolanus from North’s translation of them.","lost":"The pair of Epaminondas and Scipio, which Plutarch mentions, is lost, as are the Comparisons for Themistocles and Camillus, Pyrrhus and Marius, Alexander and Caesar, and Phocion and Cato the Younger.","defaultStart":"2026-09-07","lives":[{"id":"theseus","heading":"THESEUS","name":"Theseus","side":"Greek","dates":"legendary","profile":"The legendary founder-king of Athens who cleared the roads of brigands, slew the Minotaur, and united the villages of Attica into one city.","virtues":["fortitude","justice"],"vices":["rashness in his abductions of women"],"questions":["Plutarch opens by admitting he is passing from history into legend. How does he decide what to believe about Theseus?","Theseus punishes the brigands by the same means they used on others. Is that justice?","How did uniting Attica into one city serve the common good?"],"quotes":[{"text":"The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars","location":"Life of Theseus"}],"pair":"romulus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Romulus with Theseus","anchor":"comparison-of-romulus-with-theseus","extant":true},"anchor":"theseus"},{"id":"romulus","heading":"ROMULUS","name":"Romulus","side":"Roman","dates":"legendary; Rome founded 753 BC by tradition","profile":"The legendary founder of Rome, raised with his twin Remus, who gathered a people, founded the city, and gave it its first institutions.","virtues":["fortitude"],"vices":["wrath in the killing of Remus","pride in his later reign"],"questions":["What does the quarrel with Remus show about ambition and brotherhood?","How did Romulus make a people out of fugitives and neighbors?","In the Comparison, which founder does Plutarch think more blameworthy, and why?"],"pair":"theseus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Romulus with Theseus","anchor":"comparison-of-romulus-with-theseus","extant":true},"anchor":"romulus"},{"id":"lycurgus","heading":"LYCURGUS","name":"Lycurgus","side":"Greek","dates":"semi-legendary, 9th-8th century BC","profile":"The Spartan lawgiver who redistributed land, set up the common messes, and trained citizens from boyhood in hardship and discipline.","virtues":["temperance","justice"],"vices":["harshness toward helots and the weak"],"questions":["How did Lycurgus use common meals and plain living to train temperance?","What does his saying about a wall of men mean for a city’s defense?","What did Spartan education gain, and what did it give up?"],"quotes":[{"text":"The city is well fortified which hath a wall of men instead of brick","location":"Life of Lycurgus"}],"pair":"numa","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Numa with Lycurgus","anchor":"comparison-of-numa-with-lycurgus","extant":true},"anchor":"lycurgus"},{"id":"numa","heading":"NUMA POMPILIUS","name":"Numa Pompilius","side":"Roman","dates":"reigned c. 715-673 BC by tradition","profile":"The second king of Rome, a Sabine of quiet and pious life, who gave the warlike city its priesthoods, calendar, and religious rites and kept long peace.","virtues":["piety","justice"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did the Romans choose a man of peace to follow Romulus?","How did Numa use religion to soften a warlike people?","In comparing Numa with Lycurgus, which lawgiver’s work lasted better, and why?"],"pair":"lycurgus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Numa with Lycurgus","anchor":"comparison-of-numa-with-lycurgus","extant":true},"anchor":"numa-pompilius"},{"id":"solon","heading":"SOLON","name":"Solon","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 638-558 BC","profile":"The Athenian lawgiver and poet who cancelled debts that enslaved the poor, reformed the constitution, and then left Athens so his laws would be tested without him.","virtues":["justice","prudence","humility"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did Solon refuse to make himself tyrant when he could have?","What does Solon’s answer to Croesus teach about happiness?","Why did Solon leave Athens after giving his laws?"],"pair":"poplicola","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Poplicola with Solon","anchor":"comparison-of-poplicola-with-solon","extant":true},"anchor":"solon"},{"id":"poplicola","heading":"POPLICOLA","name":"Publius Valerius Poplicola","side":"Roman","dates":"consul 509 BC","profile":"One of the first consuls of the Roman Republic, who lowered the fasces before the people and passed laws protecting citizens, earning the name \"friend of the people.\"","virtues":["justice","humility"],"vices":[],"questions":["When accused of aiming at kingship, how did Poplicola answer by deeds rather than words?","Why does Plutarch say Solon’s praise of Tellus fits Poplicola even better?","What makes a leader a friend of the people without flattering them?"],"pair":"solon","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Poplicola with Solon","anchor":"comparison-of-poplicola-with-solon","extant":true},"anchor":"poplicola"},{"id":"themistocles","heading":"THEMISTOCLES","name":"Themistocles","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 524-459 BC","profile":"The Athenian who built the fleet and won the sea battle of Salamis against Xerxes, and was later ostracized and died in the service of Persia.","virtues":["prudence","fortitude"],"vices":["vainglory","love of gain"],"questions":["How did Themistocles’ foresight in building a navy save Greece?","What does his answer to Eurybiades, Strike if you will, but hear, show about putting the cause above pride?","How could the victor of Salamis end in exile among the Persians?"],"quotes":[{"text":"Strike if you will, but hear","location":"Life of Themistocles"}],"pair":"camillus","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"themistocles"},{"id":"camillus","heading":"CAMILLUS","name":"Marcus Furius Camillus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 446-365 BC","profile":"The Roman general who took Veii, was exiled, and returned to rescue Rome from the Gauls, earning the title of second founder of the city.","virtues":["piety","magnanimity","friendship"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did Camillus come back to save the city that had exiled him?","What does the story of the schoolmaster of Falerii show about justice in war?","Why did Camillus persuade the Romans not to move to Veii after the Gallic sack?"],"pair":"themistocles","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"camillus"},{"id":"pericles","heading":"PERICLES","name":"Pericles","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 495-429 BC","profile":"The statesman of Athens in its golden age, who led by eloquence and integrity, built the Parthenon, and directed the city at the start of the Peloponnesian War.","virtues":["prudence","temperance","magnanimity"],"vices":[],"questions":["How did Pericles keep the trust of the people without flattering them?","Plutarch praises his calm under insult. Give an example and say why it matters in a leader.","Plutarch says Pericles boasted that no Athenian had put on mourning because of him. What does that reveal?"],"pair":"fabius","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pericles with Fabius","anchor":"comparison-of-pericles-with-fabius","extant":true},"anchor":"pericles"},{"id":"fabius","heading":"FABIUS","name":"Quintus Fabius Maximus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 280-203 BC","profile":"The Roman dictator called Cunctator, the Delayer, who wore down Hannibal by refusing pitched battle, enduring ridicule until events proved him right.","virtues":["prudence","fortitude","humility"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why is patient delay sometimes the bravest course?","How did Fabius respond when Minucius was given equal command, and then needed rescue?","Plutarch compares Pericles and Fabius. Which do you think faced the harder task?"],"pair":"pericles","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pericles with Fabius","anchor":"comparison-of-pericles-with-fabius","extant":true},"anchor":"fabius"},{"id":"alcibiades","heading":"ALCIBIADES","name":"Alcibiades","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 450-404 BC","profile":"The brilliant, beautiful Athenian, a companion of Socrates, who led the Sicilian expedition, changed sides to Sparta and Persia, and returned before his final exile and murder.","virtues":["magnanimity"],"vices":["vainglory","disloyalty","intemperance"],"questions":["Socrates loved Alcibiades and tried to correct him. Why did his teaching not hold?","How does Alcibiades’ talent without steadiness harm his city?","Can a person who changes sides as often as Alcibiades be trusted with power?"],"pair":"coriolanus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus","anchor":"comparison-of-alcibiades-with-coriolanus","extant":true},"anchor":"alcibiades"},{"id":"coriolanus","heading":"CORIOLANUS","name":"Gaius Marcius Coriolanus","side":"Roman","dates":"early 5th century BC","profile":"The proud Roman soldier who, banished by the people, led the Volscians against Rome and turned back only at the pleading of his mother Volumnia.","virtues":["fortitude","piety"],"vices":["pride","wrath"],"questions":["Plutarch says Coriolanus lacked education to temper his virtues. What does he mean?","Why does his mother’s plea move him when nothing else could?","Shakespeare built a tragedy on this Life. What makes Coriolanus tragic?"],"pair":"alcibiades","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus","anchor":"comparison-of-alcibiades-with-coriolanus","extant":true},"anchor":"coriolanus"},{"id":"timoleon","heading":"TIMOLEON","name":"Timoleon","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 411-337 BC","profile":"The Corinthian who freed Sicily from tyrants and Carthaginians, restored self-government to Syracuse, and then lived as a private citizen honored by all.","virtues":["justice","humility","magnanimity"],"vices":[],"questions":["Timoleon gave the credit for his success to fortune and the gods. What does this show about him?","Why did he lay down power after freeing Syracuse?","How did his grief after his brother’s death shape his later life?"],"pair":"aemilius-paulus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Timoleon with Aemilius Paulus","anchor":"comparison-of-timoleon-with-aemilius-paulus","extant":true},"anchor":"timoleon"},{"id":"aemilius-paulus","heading":"AEMILIUS PAULUS","name":"Aemilius Paulus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 229-160 BC","profile":"The Roman general who defeated King Perseus of Macedon at Pydna, and who bore the death of two sons during his triumph with dignity.","virtues":["fortitude","temperance","justice"],"vices":[],"questions":["How did Aemilius restore discipline to the army?","What did he take for himself from the wealth of Macedon?","How did he speak to the people after the death of his sons?"],"pair":"timoleon","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Timoleon with Aemilius Paulus","anchor":"comparison-of-timoleon-with-aemilius-paulus","extant":true},"anchor":"aemilius-paulus"},{"id":"pelopidas","heading":"PELOPIDAS","name":"Pelopidas","side":"Greek","dates":"died 364 BC","profile":"The Theban who freed his city from Spartan occupation, led the Sacred Band with Epaminondas, and died charging the tyrant Alexander of Pherae.","virtues":["fortitude","friendship"],"vices":["rashness"],"questions":["What made the friendship of Pelopidas and Epaminondas strong?","How did Pelopidas help raise Thebes from a subject city to a leading power?","Was his last charge courage or rashness?"],"pair":"marcellus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pelopidas with Marcellus","anchor":"comparison-of-pelopidas-with-marcellus","extant":true},"anchor":"pelopidas"},{"id":"marcellus","heading":"MARCELLUS","name":"Marcus Claudius Marcellus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 268-208 BC","profile":"The Roman \"sword of Rome\" who took Syracuse (where Archimedes died) and fought Hannibal, dying in an ambush.","virtues":["fortitude"],"vices":["rashness"],"questions":["How does Plutarch describe Archimedes’ defense of Syracuse?","What did Marcellus feel at the fall of Syracuse?","Plutarch faults both Pelopidas and Marcellus for how they died. Do you agree?"],"pair":"pelopidas","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pelopidas with Marcellus","anchor":"comparison-of-pelopidas-with-marcellus","extant":true},"anchor":"marcellus"},{"id":"aristides","heading":"ARISTIDES","name":"Aristides","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 530-468 BC","profile":"The Athenian called the Just, who was ostracized, then fought at Salamis and Plataea and fairly assessed the tribute of the Delian League, dying poor.","virtues":["justice","humility","temperance"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did a voter want to ostracize Aristides for being called the Just?","How did Aristides act toward his rival Themistocles when Greece was in danger?","Why does Plutarch make so much of his poverty?"],"pair":"cato-the-elder","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Aristides with Marcus Cato","anchor":"comparison-of-aristides-with-marcus-cato","extant":true},"anchor":"aristides"},{"id":"cato-the-elder","heading":"MARCUS CATO","name":"Marcus Porcius Cato (the Elder)","side":"Roman","dates":"234-149 BC","profile":"The Roman censor of old-fashioned frugality who farmed, fought, and spoke against luxury, ending every speech with the call to destroy Carthage.","virtues":["temperance","industry","honor"],"vices":["harshness toward slaves"],"questions":["What did Cato mean by preferring to be asked why he had no statue?","How did his frugality shape his public life?","Plutarch criticizes Cato’s treatment of old slaves. What does Plutarch’s judgment show about his own view of justice?"],"quotes":[{"text":"I would,\" said he, \"much rather be asked, why I have not one, than why I have one","location":"Life of Marcus Cato"}],"pair":"aristides","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Aristides with Marcus Cato","anchor":"comparison-of-aristides-with-marcus-cato","extant":true},"anchor":"marcus-cato"},{"id":"philopoemen","heading":"PHILOPOEMEN","name":"Philopoemen","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 253-183 BC","profile":"The general of the Achaean League, called the last of the Greeks, who trained his countrymen in arms and defended Greek freedom until his capture and death.","virtues":["industry","fortitude"],"vices":["contentiousness"],"questions":["Why was Philopoemen called the last of the Greeks?","How did he reform the Achaean army?","What does his rivalry with Flamininus show about honor and pride?"],"pair":"flamininus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Philopoemen with Flamininus","anchor":"comparison-of-philopoemen-with-flamininus","extant":true},"anchor":"philopoemen"},{"id":"flamininus","heading":"FLAMININUS","name":"Titus Quinctius Flamininus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 229-174 BC","profile":"The young Roman general who defeated Philip V of Macedon and proclaimed the freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games.","virtues":["magnanimity"],"vices":["ambition"],"questions":["Why did the Greeks react so strongly to the proclamation of their freedom?","Was Flamininus generous or seeking glory, or both?","In the Comparison, how does Plutarch weigh the two men?"],"pair":"philopoemen","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Philopoemen with Flamininus","anchor":"comparison-of-philopoemen-with-flamininus","extant":true},"anchor":"flamininus"},{"id":"pyrrhus","heading":"PYRRHUS","name":"Pyrrhus","side":"Greek","dates":"319-272 BC","profile":"The King of Epirus, a brilliant general who won costly victories against Rome and never rested from war, dying in a street fight at Argos.","virtues":["fortitude"],"vices":["ambition","restlessness"],"questions":["What does Cineas’ conversation with Pyrrhus about his endless plans teach?","Why do we still speak of a Pyrrhic victory?","What did Pyrrhus admire in the Roman Fabricius?"],"pair":"marius","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"pyrrhus"},{"id":"marius","heading":"CAIUS MARIUS","name":"Gaius Marius","side":"Roman","dates":"157-86 BC","profile":"The Roman of humble birth, seven times consul, who reformed the army and defeated the Cimbri and Teutones, but ended in civil war and bloodshed.","virtues":["fortitude","industry"],"vices":["ambition","wrath"],"questions":["How did Marius rise from humble beginnings?","Why does Plutarch say Marius never learned the Greek graces that might have softened him?","What did his ambition cost Rome in his last years?"],"pair":"pyrrhus","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"caius-marius"},{"id":"lysander","heading":"LYSANDER","name":"Lysander","side":"Greek","dates":"died 395 BC","profile":"The Spartan admiral who defeated Athens at Aegospotami and ended the Peloponnesian War, poor in his own life but corrupting Sparta with the gold he brought home.","virtues":["temperance"],"vices":["cunning","ambition"],"questions":["Lysander stayed poor himself while bringing wealth to Sparta. What did that wealth do?","What does his saying about the lion’s skin and the fox’s show about his methods?","How does Lysander compare with Sulla in the use of cruelty?"],"pair":"sulla","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Lysander with Sylla","anchor":"comparison-of-lysander-with-sylla","extant":true},"anchor":"lysander"},{"id":"sulla","heading":"SYLLA","name":"Lucius Cornelius Sulla","side":"Roman","dates":"138-78 BC","profile":"The Roman general who defeated Mithridates, marched on Rome, made himself dictator, published the proscriptions, and then laid down power.","virtues":["fortitude"],"vices":["wrath","intemperance"],"questions":["Why did Sulla call himself Felix, the fortunate?","What did the proscriptions do to Rome?","Why might Sulla have laid down the dictatorship?"],"pair":"lysander","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Lysander with Sylla","anchor":"comparison-of-lysander-with-sylla","extant":true},"anchor":"sylla"},{"id":"cimon","heading":"CIMON","name":"Cimon","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 510-450 BC","profile":"The son of Miltiades, an Athenian general famed for his generosity, who won the Eurymedon and opened his fields and table to all citizens.","virtues":["charity","fortitude","friendship"],"vices":[],"questions":["How did Cimon use his wealth for his fellow citizens?","Why did he favor friendship with Sparta?","How did Cimon accept ostracism and his recall?"],"pair":"lucullus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Lucullus with Cimon","anchor":"comparison-of-lucullus-with-cimon","extant":true},"anchor":"cimon"},{"id":"lucullus","heading":"LUCULLUS","name":"Lucius Licinius Lucullus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 118-57 BC","profile":"The Roman general who campaigned brilliantly against Mithridates and Tigranes, then retired to legendary luxury and learning.","virtues":["prudence"],"vices":["intemperance"],"questions":["Why did Lucullus’ soldiers turn against him despite his victories?","What do his feasts in retirement show?","Plutarch notes that he gathered a great library and opened it to Greek scholars. How should we weigh his later life?"],"pair":"cimon","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Lucullus with Cimon","anchor":"comparison-of-lucullus-with-cimon","extant":true},"anchor":"lucullus"},{"id":"nicias","heading":"NICIAS","name":"Nicias","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 470-413 BC","profile":"The cautious and pious Athenian who made the peace named for him, opposed the Sicilian expedition, was forced to lead it, and died after its disaster.","virtues":["piety","prudence"],"vices":["cowardice","superstition"],"questions":["Why did Nicias accept command of an expedition he had argued against?","How did fear of an eclipse delay the retreat at Syracuse?","Is caution always prudence?"],"pair":"crassus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Crassus with Nicias","anchor":"comparison-of-crassus-with-nicias","extant":true},"anchor":"nicias"},{"id":"crassus","heading":"CRASSUS","name":"Marcus Licinius Crassus","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 115-53 BC","profile":"The richest man in Rome, who crushed the revolt of Spartacus, joined Pompey and Caesar in the triumvirate, and died in his invasion of Parthia at Carrhae.","virtues":[],"vices":["avarice","ambition"],"questions":["How did Crassus gain his wealth?","Why did he seek war in Parthia?","What does the Comparison of Nicias and Crassus say about two different kinds of failure?"],"pair":"nicias","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Crassus with Nicias","anchor":"comparison-of-crassus-with-nicias","extant":true},"anchor":"crassus"},{"id":"sertorius","heading":"SERTORIUS","name":"Quintus Sertorius","side":"Roman","dates":"c. 126-73 BC","profile":"The Roman general who held Spain against Sulla’s government, winning the loyalty of the Spanish tribes, until he was murdered by his own officers.","virtues":["prudence","justice"],"vices":["disloyalty (of his officers)"],"questions":["How did Sertorius win the loyalty of the Spaniards?","What does the story of the white fawn show about his leadership?","What does his murder by his own officers show?"],"pair":"eumenes","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Sertorius with Eumenes","anchor":"comparison-of-sertorius-with-eumenes","extant":true},"anchor":"sertorius"},{"id":"eumenes","heading":"EUMENES","name":"Eumenes of Cardia","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 362-316 BC","profile":"Alexander’s secretary who became one of his successors’ ablest generals and remained loyal to Alexander’s family until his own troops betrayed him.","virtues":["friendship","prudence"],"vices":["disloyalty (of the Silver Shields)"],"questions":["Why was Eumenes distrusted by the Macedonian generals?","How did he stay loyal to Alexander’s house?","What does his betrayal by his own soldiers teach?"],"pair":"sertorius","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Sertorius with Eumenes","anchor":"comparison-of-sertorius-with-eumenes","extant":true},"anchor":"eumenes"},{"id":"agesilaus","heading":"AGESILAUS","name":"Agesilaus","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 444-360 BC","profile":"The lame Spartan king who campaigned in Asia, came home at his country’s call, and led Sparta in its last years of supremacy.","virtues":["piety","temperance","friendship"],"vices":["partiality to friends"],"questions":["Why did Agesilaus obey the recall from Asia at the height of his success?","How did he combine simplicity of life with royal power?","Plutarch says he loved his friends too much to be just. Give an example."],"pair":"pompey","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pompey and Agesilaus","anchor":"comparison-of-pompey-and-agesilaus","extant":true},"anchor":"agesilaus"},{"id":"pompey","heading":"POMPEY","name":"Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus","side":"Roman","dates":"106-48 BC","profile":"Pompey the Great, who won triumphs on three continents, cleared the sea of pirates, and then lost the civil war to Caesar and was murdered in Egypt.","virtues":["honor","temperance"],"vices":["ambition","indecision"],"questions":["What did Pompey mean by telling Sulla that more men worship the rising than the setting sun?","How did Pompey use his success against the pirates?","Why did Pompey fail against Caesar?"],"quotes":[{"text":"more worshiped the rising than the setting sun","location":"Life of Pompey"}],"pair":"agesilaus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Pompey and Agesilaus","anchor":"comparison-of-pompey-and-agesilaus","extant":true},"anchor":"pompey"},{"id":"alexander","heading":"ALEXANDER","name":"Alexander the Great","side":"Greek","dates":"356-323 BC","profile":"The Macedonian king, pupil of Aristotle, who conquered the Persian Empire to India and died at thirty-two; Plutarch writes lives, not histories, and looks for character in small things.","virtues":["magnanimity","fortitude"],"vices":["wrath","intemperance"],"questions":["Plutarch says a jest may show character better than a battle. Find such a moment in this Life.","How did Alexander treat the family of Darius?","What does the killing of Clitus reveal?"],"quotes":[{"text":"the most glorious exploits do not always furnish us with the clearest discoveries of virtue or vice in men","location":"Life of Alexander, opening"}],"pair":"caesar","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"alexander"},{"id":"caesar","heading":"CAESAR","name":"Julius Caesar","side":"Roman","dates":"100-44 BC","profile":"The Roman general and statesman who conquered Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, won the civil war, became dictator, and was assassinated on the Ides of March.","virtues":["fortitude","magnanimity"],"vices":["ambition"],"questions":["What does Caesar’s remark in the Alpine village show about him?","Why did crossing the Rubicon matter?","How did Caesar treat defeated enemies, and why?"],"quotes":[{"text":"I had rather be the first man among these fellows, than the second man in Rome","location":"Life of Caesar"}],"pair":"alexander","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"caesar"},{"id":"phocion","heading":"PHOCION","name":"Phocion","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 402-318 BC","profile":"The Athenian general elected forty-five times, called the Good, plain-spoken and incorruptible, who was condemned to drink hemlock by the people he served.","virtues":["justice","temperance","fortitude"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did Phocion refuse Alexander’s gifts?","How did he speak to the assembly, and why was he respected?","Compare Phocion’s death with that of Socrates."],"pair":"cato-the-younger","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"phocion"},{"id":"cato-the-younger","heading":"CATO THE YOUNGER","name":"Marcus Porcius Cato (the Younger)","side":"Roman","dates":"95-46 BC","profile":"The Stoic senator who opposed Caesar on principle, refused every bribe, and took his own life at Utica rather than accept Caesar’s pardon.","virtues":["justice","temperance","honor"],"vices":["inflexibility"],"questions":["How did Cato’s integrity show itself in small duties like the treasury?","Was his refusal to compromise a strength or a weakness in politics?","Christian writers did not praise his suicide. How would Augustine (City of God I) judge it?"],"pair":"phocion","comparison":{"extant":false,"note":"Plutarch’s Comparison for this pair has not survived."},"anchor":"cato-the-younger"},{"id":"agis","heading":"AGIS","name":"Agis IV","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 265-241 BC","profile":"The young Spartan king who tried to restore the laws of Lycurgus by cancelling debts and redistributing land, and was executed for it.","virtues":["justice","temperance"],"vices":[],"questions":["Why did Agis want to restore the old Spartan way of life?","Who opposed him, and why?","What did his death show about reform?"],"pair":"tiberius-gracchus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Cleomenes","anchor":"comparison-of-tiberius-and-caius-gracchus-with-agis-and-cleomenes","extant":true},"anchor":"agis"},{"id":"cleomenes","heading":"CLEOMENES","name":"Cleomenes III","side":"Greek","dates":"c. 260-219 BC","profile":"The Spartan king who carried out the reforms of Agis by force, revived Spartan power for a time, and died in exile in Egypt.","virtues":["fortitude","justice"],"vices":["violence"],"questions":["How did Cleomenes differ from Agis in his methods?","Was his use of force justified by his goals?","How did his life end in Egypt?"],"pair":"gaius-gracchus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Cleomenes","anchor":"comparison-of-tiberius-and-caius-gracchus-with-agis-and-cleomenes","extant":true},"anchor":"cleomenes"},{"id":"tiberius-gracchus","heading":"TIBERIUS GRACCHUS","name":"Tiberius Gracchus","side":"Roman","dates":"163-133 BC","profile":"The Roman tribune who proposed a land law to settle the poor on public land and was killed in a riot led by senators.","virtues":["justice","charity"],"vices":["ambition (as his enemies charged)"],"questions":["What problem was Tiberius trying to solve with his land law?","Why did deposing the tribune Octavius cause such alarm?","How did his mother Cornelia shape her sons?"],"pair":"agis","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Cleomenes","anchor":"comparison-of-tiberius-and-caius-gracchus-with-agis-and-cleomenes","extant":true},"anchor":"tiberius-gracchus"},{"id":"gaius-gracchus","heading":"CAIUS GRACCHUS","name":"Gaius Gracchus","side":"Roman","dates":"154-121 BC","profile":"The younger brother of Tiberius, a powerful orator who carried a wide program of reforms as tribune and died in the violence that followed.","virtues":["fortitude","industry"],"vices":["wrath"],"questions":["How did Gaius differ in temper from his brother?","What reforms did he carry?","In the Comparison, how does Plutarch weigh the Gracchi against Agis and Cleomenes?"],"pair":"cleomenes","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Cleomenes","anchor":"comparison-of-tiberius-and-caius-gracchus-with-agis-and-cleomenes","extant":true},"anchor":"caius-gracchus"},{"id":"demosthenes","heading":"DEMOSTHENES","name":"Demosthenes","side":"Greek","dates":"384-322 BC","profile":"The Athenian orator who overcame a weak voice by discipline and spent his life rousing Athens against Philip of Macedon.","virtues":["industry","fortitude"],"vices":["cowardice at Chaeronea"],"questions":["How did Demosthenes train himself to speak?","Why did he devote his eloquence to resisting Philip?","Plutarch notes that he fled the battle of Chaeronea. How should we weigh this against his life’s work?"],"quotes":[{"text":"his inarticulate and stammering pronunciation he overcame and rendered more distinct by speaking with pebbles in his mouth","location":"Life of Demosthenes"}],"pair":"cicero","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero","anchor":"comparison-of-demosthenes-and-cicero","extant":true},"anchor":"demosthenes"},{"id":"cicero","heading":"CICERO","name":"Marcus Tullius Cicero","side":"Roman","dates":"106-43 BC","profile":"The Roman orator, philosopher, and consul who exposed the conspiracy of Catiline and was killed in the proscriptions of Antony.","virtues":["prudence","industry"],"vices":["vainglory"],"questions":["How did Cicero rise as a new man without noble ancestors?","Plutarch faults Cicero for praising himself. Why does it matter?","In comparing Demosthenes and Cicero, which does Plutarch think the better statesman?"],"pair":"demosthenes","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero","anchor":"comparison-of-demosthenes-and-cicero","extant":true},"anchor":"cicero"},{"id":"demetrius","heading":"DEMETRIUS","name":"Demetrius Poliorcetes","side":"Greek","dates":"336-283 BC","profile":"The Besieger of Cities, son of Antigonus, a brilliant and extravagant king who won and lost kingdoms and died a captive.","virtues":["magnanimity"],"vices":["intemperance","vainglory"],"questions":["Plutarch says he writes this pair as a warning. Why include bad examples?","What did Demetrius’ siege engines at Rhodes show?","How did his indulgence undo him?"],"pair":"antony","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Demetrius and Antony","anchor":"comparison-of-demetrius-and-antony","extant":true},"anchor":"demetrius"},{"id":"antony","heading":"ANTONY","name":"Mark Antony","side":"Roman","dates":"83-30 BC","profile":"Caesar’s lieutenant and avenger, triumvir, and lover of Cleopatra, who lost the civil war at Actium and died in Egypt.","virtues":["fortitude","friendship"],"vices":["intemperance","disloyalty"],"questions":["How did Antony show courage and endurance in the retreat from Parthia?","What did his love for Cleopatra cost him?","Shakespeare followed this Life closely. Why is it a natural tragedy?"],"pair":"demetrius","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Demetrius and Antony","anchor":"comparison-of-demetrius-and-antony","extant":true},"anchor":"antony"},{"id":"dion","heading":"DION","name":"Dion of Syracuse","side":"Greek","dates":"408-354 BC","profile":"The friend and student of Plato who freed Syracuse from the tyrant Dionysius II but was murdered by a former friend.","virtues":["justice","friendship"],"vices":["severity"],"questions":["How did Dion’s friendship with Plato shape him?","Why was Dion’s gravity mistaken for pride?","What does his murder by Callippus show?"],"pair":"brutus","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Dion and Brutus","anchor":"comparison-of-dion-and-brutus","extant":true},"anchor":"dion"},{"id":"brutus","heading":"MARCUS BRUTUS","name":"Marcus Junius Brutus","side":"Roman","dates":"85-42 BC","profile":"The Roman of philosophical temper who joined the conspiracy against Caesar for the sake of the Republic and died after Philippi.","virtues":["justice","honor"],"vices":["disloyalty (to Caesar, who had spared him)"],"questions":["Why did Brutus join the conspiracy though Caesar had spared him?","What does Antony say of Brutus after his death in Plutarch’s account?","Can a good end justify the killing of a ruler? Discuss with Dion and Brutus together."],"pair":"dion","comparison":{"title":"Comparison of Dion and Brutus","anchor":"comparison-of-dion-and-brutus","extant":true},"anchor":"marcus-brutus"},{"id":"aratus","heading":"ARATUS","name":"Aratus of Sicyon","side":"Greek","dates":"271-213 BC","profile":"The leader of the Achaean League who freed Sicyon from tyranny and took the citadel of Corinth, a single Life without a Roman pair.","virtues":["prudence","fortitude"],"vices":["timidity in open battle"],"questions":["How did Aratus free his city?","Why did he call in Macedon against Cleomenes, and what followed?","Plutarch wrote this Life for descendants of Aratus. What example did he want them to follow?"],"anchor":"aratus","single":true},{"id":"artaxerxes","heading":"ARTAXERXES","name":"Artaxerxes II","side":"Persian","dates":"reigned 404-358 BC","profile":"The Persian king who defeated his brother Cyrus the Younger at Cunaxa (the battle that began Xenophon’s march) and ruled a court of intrigue.","virtues":["temperance"],"vices":["wrath","cruelty"],"questions":["How does this Life connect with Xenophon’s Persian Expedition?","What role did the queen mother Parysatis play?","What does the Persian court show about absolute power?"],"anchor":"artaxerxes","single":true},{"id":"galba","heading":"GALBA","name":"Galba","side":"Roman","dates":"3 BC-AD 69","profile":"The aged Roman emperor who succeeded Nero and was killed after seven months, the first of the four emperors of AD 69.","virtues":["temperance"],"vices":["avarice","severity"],"questions":["Why did Galba lose the soldiers’ loyalty?","What does Plutarch say about armies that follow their own will?","Why might Plutarch have written lives of emperors as well as of the Republic’s heroes?"],"anchor":"galba","single":true},{"id":"otho","heading":"OTHO","name":"Otho","side":"Roman","dates":"AD 32-69","profile":"The emperor who overthrew Galba and ruled three months, and took his own life after defeat to spare further civil war.","virtues":["magnanimity"],"vices":["ambition"],"questions":["How did Otho seize power?","Why did he end his life after Bedriacum?","Is it possible to admire his end while judging his rise?"],"anchor":"otho","single":true}],"plan":[{"week":1,"life":"theseus","reading":"Life of Theseus"},{"week":2,"life":"romulus","reading":"Life of Romulus, then the Comparison of Romulus with Theseus"},{"week":3,"life":"lycurgus","reading":"Life of Lycurgus"},{"week":4,"life":"numa","reading":"Life of Numa Pompilius, then the Comparison of Numa with Lycurgus"},{"week":5,"life":"solon","reading":"Life of Solon"},{"week":6,"life":"poplicola","reading":"Life of Publius Valerius Poplicola, then the Comparison of Poplicola with Solon"},{"week":7,"life":"themistocles","reading":"Life of Themistocles"},{"week":8,"life":"camillus","reading":"Life of Marcus Furius Camillus"},{"week":9,"life":"pericles","reading":"Life of Pericles"},{"week":10,"life":"fabius","reading":"Life of Quintus Fabius Maximus, then the Comparison of Pericles with Fabius"},{"week":11,"life":"alcibiades","reading":"Life of Alcibiades"},{"week":12,"life":"coriolanus","reading":"Life of Gaius Marcius Coriolanus, then the Comparison of Alcibiades with Coriolanus"},{"week":13,"life":"timoleon","reading":"Life of Timoleon"},{"week":14,"life":"aemilius-paulus","reading":"Life of Aemilius Paulus, then the Comparison of Timoleon with Aemilius Paulus"},{"week":15,"life":"pelopidas","reading":"Life of Pelopidas"},{"week":16,"life":"marcellus","reading":"Life of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, then the Comparison of Pelopidas with Marcellus"},{"week":17,"life":"aristides","reading":"Life of Aristides"},{"week":18,"life":"cato-the-elder","reading":"Life of Marcus Porcius Cato (the Elder), then the Comparison of Aristides with Marcus Cato"},{"week":19,"life":"philopoemen","reading":"Life of Philopoemen"},{"week":20,"life":"flamininus","reading":"Life of Titus Quinctius Flamininus, then the Comparison of Philopoemen with Flamininus"},{"week":21,"life":"pyrrhus","reading":"Life of Pyrrhus"},{"week":22,"life":"marius","reading":"Life of Gaius Marius"},{"week":23,"life":"lysander","reading":"Life of Lysander"},{"week":24,"life":"sulla","reading":"Life of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, then the Comparison of Lysander with Sylla"},{"week":25,"life":"cimon","reading":"Life of Cimon"},{"week":26,"life":"lucullus","reading":"Life of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, then the Comparison of Lucullus with Cimon"},{"week":27,"life":"nicias","reading":"Life of Nicias"},{"week":28,"life":"crassus","reading":"Life of Marcus Licinius Crassus, then the Comparison of Crassus with Nicias"},{"week":29,"life":"sertorius","reading":"Life of Quintus Sertorius"},{"week":30,"life":"eumenes","reading":"Life of Eumenes of Cardia, then the Comparison of Sertorius with Eumenes"},{"week":31,"life":"agesilaus","reading":"Life of Agesilaus"},{"week":32,"life":"pompey","reading":"Life of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, then the Comparison of Pompey and Agesilaus"},{"week":33,"life":"alexander","reading":"Life of Alexander the Great"},{"week":34,"life":"caesar","reading":"Life of Julius Caesar"},{"week":35,"life":"phocion","reading":"Life of Phocion"},{"week":36,"life":"cato-the-younger","reading":"Life of Marcus Porcius Cato (the Younger)"},{"week":37,"life":"agis","reading":"Life of Agis IV"},{"week":38,"life":"cleomenes","reading":"Life of Cleomenes III"},{"week":39,"life":"tiberius-gracchus","reading":"Life of Tiberius Gracchus"},{"week":40,"life":"gaius-gracchus","reading":"Life of Gaius Gracchus, then the Comparison of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus with Agis and Cleomenes"},{"week":41,"life":"demosthenes","reading":"Life of Demosthenes"},{"week":42,"life":"cicero","reading":"Life of Marcus Tullius Cicero, then the Comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero"},{"week":43,"life":"demetrius","reading":"Life of Demetrius Poliorcetes"},{"week":44,"life":"antony","reading":"Life of Mark Antony, then the Comparison of Demetrius and Antony"},{"week":45,"life":"dion","reading":"Life of Dion of Syracuse"},{"week":46,"life":"brutus","reading":"Life of Marcus Junius Brutus, then the Comparison of Dion and Brutus"},{"week":47,"life":"aratus","reading":"Life of Aratus of Sicyon"},{"week":48,"life":"artaxerxes","reading":"Life of Artaxerxes II"},{"week":49,"life":"galba","reading":"Life of Galba"},{"week":50,"life":"otho","reading":"Life of Otho"}],"bookClubNotes":["Read one Life a week; most take one to two hours. Pairs run on consecutive weeks so the Comparison can be read with the second.","Begin each meeting with a summary of the hero’s deeds, then turn to character: Plutarch says he writes lives, not histories.","Use the virtue and vice questions with the virtue index; ask what each virtue looks like in action and what its opposite costs.","Keep a commonplace book of sayings and anecdotes; Plutarch himself gathers them as windows into character.","For classrooms: assign the Comparison as a model for the progymnasmata exercise of comparison (synkrisis)."]}