A glossary of propaganda techniques, informal fallacies, and classical figures, each illustrated from a work in the library, with how to recognize it and how to answer it fairly. Figures of speech are not faults in themselves: Scripture and the great orators use them well. The aim is to see how language is working so that judgment rests on reasons.
Propaganda techniques
Loaded language
Words chosen for their emotional charge rather than their accuracy, so that the listener judges a thing before examining it.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book III, ch. 82 (the revolution at Corcyra).
“Reckless audacity came to be considered the courage of a loyal ally; prudent hesitation, specious cowardice; moderation was held to be a cloak for unmanliness; ability to see all sides of a question, inaptness to act on any.”
Thucydides records how civil war at Corcyra changed the ordinary meaning of words, so that the vocabulary of praise and blame was captured by faction.
How to spot it: Ask whether a neutral word could describe the same thing. If swapping in the plain word removes the force of the claim, the force came from the word.
How to answer it fairly: Restate the claim in plain terms and ask for the evidence behind it, without returning the charged vocabulary.
Euphemism
A mild or pleasant name for something harsh, used to make it easier to accept or to avoid looking at it directly.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book III, ch. 82.
The same Corcyra passage shows the reverse move as well: treachery and violence were given the names of loyalty and courage, so that party crimes sounded like civic virtues.
How to spot it: Notice soft, abstract, or technical words standing where a concrete action should be named. Ask: what exactly happens, to whom?
How to answer it fairly: Describe the act concretely and charitably, then let the listener judge the plain description.
Bandwagon
The claim that something is true or right because many people already believe or do it.
In the library: Twelve Angry Men, Opening vote in the jury room.
Eleven jurors vote guilty at once and press the one holdout to fall in line; the play turns on his insistence that the evidence, not the count of votes, must decide.
How to spot it: Look for appeals to numbers, momentum, or popularity ("everyone knows", "the whole town agrees") offered in place of reasons.
How to answer it fairly: Grant that numbers are worth noticing, then ask what reasons persuaded the many; the question is settled by those reasons.
Appeal to fear
Moving an audience by presenting a threat, real or exaggerated, so that fear does the work of argument.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book V, chs. 84-116 (the Melian Dialogue).
“the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must”
The Athenian envoys set aside questions of right and press the Melians with the certainty of their own superior force.
How to spot it: Ask whether the danger is real, how likely it is, and whether the proposed action actually answers it. Real dangers can be argued from honestly; fear is a problem only when it replaces the argument.
How to answer it fairly: Acknowledge the danger fairly, then weigh it in proportion and examine whether the remedy follows.
Card stacking
Presenting only the evidence that favors one side while omitting what would complicate it.
In the library: Gulliver's Travels, Part II, ch. 6-7 (Brobdingnag).
Gulliver gives the King of Brobdingnag a glowing account of English institutions; the King, by close questioning, draws out what the account left out, and reaches a very different conclusion.
How to spot it: Ask what a well-informed opponent would add. A case with no costs, exceptions, or counter-examples is usually a selected one.
How to answer it fairly: Supply the missing evidence calmly, as the King does, by asking questions rather than making accusations.
Glittering generalities
Attaching a cause to broad, admired words (freedom, honor, greatness, the people) without saying concretely what they mean in this case.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book II, chs. 35-46 (Funeral Oration of Pericles).
“as a city we are the school of Hellas”
Pericles’ Funeral Oration is a masterpiece of the encomium, praising Athens in large terms; it is a model of ceremonial speech, and a good place to ask how general praise is joined to particular claims.
How to spot it: Underline the abstract nouns and ask what each one requires in practice here. Fine words are not a fault; the question is whether they are filled with specifics.
How to answer it fairly: Accept the shared ideal and ask how this proposal serves it, with particulars.
Transfer
Borrowing the prestige of something revered (religion, country, a hero, a symbol) and attaching it to a person or cause.
In the library: The Prince, Ch. XVIII.
“to appear merciful, faithful, humane, religious, upright, and to be so, but with a mind so framed that should you require not to be so, you may be able and know how to change to the opposite”
Machiavelli advises the prince to borrow the reputation of the virtues, because, as he says in the same chapter, men judge more by the eye than by the hand.
How to spot it: Ask whether the revered thing actually supports the claim, or is only standing near it.
How to answer it fairly: Honor the symbol and separate it from the claim: does the case stand on its own reasons?
Testimonial
Supporting a claim by the word of a respected or famous person. Testimony is a real kind of evidence when the witness is competent in the matter.
In the library: The Last Days of Socrates, Apology 20e-21a.
Socrates calls the god at Delphi as witness, through his friend Chaerephon’s question to the oracle, and then tests the oracle’s saying by questioning the reputedly wise: a testimonial treated as a starting point for inquiry.
How to spot it: Ask whether the witness knows this subject, whether he has an interest, and whether other competent witnesses agree.
How to answer it fairly: Respect the witness and ask what he actually knows and how; then weigh the testimony with the other evidence.
Plain folks
Presenting oneself as an ordinary, sensible person speaking plainly, to win trust by identification rather than argument.
In the library: Common Sense, Rights of Man, The Age of Reason, and The American Crisis, Common Sense, Introduction to section III.
“I offer nothing more than simple facts, plain arguments, and common sense”
Paine’s plain style was highly effective with a broad readership in the American provinces of 1776; his title itself makes the appeal.
How to spot it: Notice claims to be "just ordinary", "no fancy talk", "common sense". Then check whether the plain arguments are in fact supplied.
How to answer it fairly: Welcome the plain style and examine the arguments it carries on their merits.
Name-calling
Attaching an insulting label to a person or idea so that it is rejected without examination.
In the library: Macbeth, Act I, scene 7.
“When you durst do it, then you were a man”
Lady Macbeth overcomes her husband’s scruples by taunting his manhood, turning the question from whether the deed is right to whether he is a coward.
How to spot it: When a label replaces a reason, ask what the label is supposed to prove.
How to answer it fairly: Set the label aside without returning it, and bring the discussion back to the question itself, as Macbeth briefly does with "I dare do all that may become a man."
Repetition
Saying a phrase again and again until it feels familiar and therefore true.
In the library: Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Life of Marcus Cato.
“Also, Carthage, methinks, ought utterly to be destroyed”
Plutarch reports that Cato ended every speech in the Senate, whatever the subject, with this sentence.
How to spot it: Notice slogans that return regardless of topic. Familiarity is not evidence.
How to answer it fairly: Ask for the argument behind the slogan once, in full, and answer that.
Scapegoating
Blaming a group or person for troubles they did not cause, uniting an audience against a common target.
In the library: The Bible, Esther 3:8 (KJV).
“There is a certain people scattered abroad and dispersed among the people in all the provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from all people; neither keep they the king’s laws”
Haman accuses the whole Jewish people before Ahasuerus, building his case on vague difference and a general charge of disloyalty; the book of Esther records how the accusation was overturned.
How to spot it: Watch for a whole group charged with a general fault, with no particular acts or evidence named.
How to answer it fairly: Ask for specific acts by specific people; justice judges deeds, not belonging.
Appeal to appearances
Managing how things look rather than what they are, because the audience sees the surface more readily than the substance.
In the library: The Prince, Ch. XVIII.
“men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand”
Machiavelli’s observation explains why image can outrun reality in public life.
How to spot it: Ask what you have actually seen of the person’s deeds, as opposed to his presentation.
How to answer it fairly: Look to the record of acts over time.
Informal fallacies
False dilemma (either/or)
Presenting two options as the only ones when others exist.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book V, chs. 94-95 (Melian Dialogue).
The Melians propose neutrality, being friends to both sides; the Athenians refuse it and insist the only choices are submission or destruction.
How to spot it: Ask whether there are third options, middle positions, or delays the speaker has left out.
How to answer it fairly: Name the further option and ask why it is excluded; sometimes there are good reasons, and they should be stated.
Ad hominem / poisoning the well
Attacking the motives or character of a speaker instead of the argument, or discrediting him in advance.
In the library: The History of the Peloponnesian War, Book III, chs. 37-40 (Mytilenian Debate).
Cleon warns the assembly that anyone who argues for mercy must be either showing off his cleverness or bribed; Diodotus answers that such suspicion makes honest counsel impossible.
How to spot it: Ask whether the remark about the person would still matter if the argument were true.
How to answer it fairly: Like Diodotus, decline to trade suspicions and return to the question of what is best to do.
Straw man
Refuting a weaker or distorted version of an opponent’s position instead of the one he holds.
In the library: The Last Days of Socrates, Apology 18a-19d.
Socrates says his older accusers spread a caricature of a man who speculates about the heavens and makes the weaker argument stronger, as in the comedy of Aristophanes, and distinguishes it from what he actually does.
How to spot it: Compare the version being attacked with what the other side actually says, in their own words.
How to answer it fairly: State the opponent’s view in a form he would accept before answering it.
Appeal to pity
Seeking a verdict by moving the audience to sympathy instead of showing that the case is just.
In the library: The Last Days of Socrates, Apology 34c-35d.
Socrates notes that defendants often bring weeping children before the jury, and refuses to do so, holding that the judge is sworn to decide by law and not to grant favors.
How to spot it: Ask whether the sympathy offered bears on the question being decided.
How to answer it fairly: Feel the compassion honestly and keep the question distinct: what does justice require here?
Slippery slope
Claiming that a first step will lead by a chain of consequences to a bad end, without showing that each link is likely.
In the library: The Anti-Federalist Papers, Brutus, essays I-VI.
Brutus argues that the broad powers of the proposed government would extend step by step until the states were absorbed; the Federalist answers each link. Reading both is an exercise in judging which steps are probable.
How to spot it: List each link in the chain and ask how likely it is. Some slopes are real; the argument must show the slope.
How to answer it fairly: Grant the links that are probable and ask for evidence on the weak ones.
Classical figures of speech
Anaphora
Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, giving a passage rhythm and weight.
In the library: The Bible, Matthew 5:3-11 (KJV).
“Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven”
The Beatitudes open nine sentences with "Blessed are", binding them into one teaching.
How to spot it: Listen for the same opening repeated. It is a figure of emphasis; ask what it is emphasizing.
How to answer it fairly: Appreciate the cadence, then test each repeated claim on its own.
Antithesis
Setting contrasting ideas side by side in parallel form.
In the library: The Bible, Ecclesiastes 3:2 (KJV).
“A time to be born, and a time to die”
The Preacher’s catalogue of times sets each activity against its opposite.
How to spot it: Look for balanced pairs of opposites. Ask whether the contrast is real or forced.
How to answer it fairly: Where the contrast is too neat, point out the middle cases it leaves out.
Chiasmus
A reversal of the order of terms in two parallel phrases (A-B, B-A).
In the library: The Bible, Mark 2:27 (KJV).
“The sabbath was made for man, and not man for the sabbath”
Christ’s reversal turns a dispute about rules into a statement of their purpose.
How to spot it: Look for crossed repetition of the same words. It often marks the point the speaker most wants remembered.
How to answer it fairly: Read it slowly and state the claim in plain prose to be sure you agree with it.
Litotes
Understatement by denying the opposite ("not bad" for "good").
In the library: The Bible, Acts 21:39 (KJV).
“a citizen of no mean city”
Paul describes Tarsus, a great city, with modest understatement before the Roman tribune.
How to spot it: Watch for "not un-", "no small", "no mean". Ask what positive claim is being made modestly.
How to answer it fairly: Translate it into the plain positive claim and judge that.
Apophasis (paralipsis)
Mentioning something by saying one will not mention it.
In the library: The Bible, Philemon 19 (KJV).
“albeit I do not say to thee how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides”
Paul, pleading for Onesimus, gently reminds Philemon of his debt while saying he will not.
How to spot it: Listen for "I won’t mention...", "not to speak of...", "I need hardly say...". The thing is being said.
How to answer it fairly: Treat the passed-over point as a real claim and ask for its support.
Rhetorical question
A question asked for effect, whose answer the speaker assumes the audience will supply.
In the library: Narrative of the Life and What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?, What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? (1852).
“What, to the American slave, is your 4th of July?”
Douglass builds the address around this question and then answers it with full force.
How to spot it: Ask what answer the question assumes and whether that answer has been shown.
How to answer it fairly: Answer the question actually, in your own words; the answer the speaker expects may be right, but it should be stated and defended.
Tricolon
A series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses, often building in force.
In the library: Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Life of Caesar.
“I came, saw, and conquered”
Plutarch notes that Caesar reported his swift victory at Zela in three words with the same cadence in Latin.
How to spot it: Count the parts of a memorable phrase. Threes feel complete; ask whether the third item is really earned.
How to answer it fairly: Separate the three claims and test each.
Irony (sustained)
Saying the opposite of what is meant, sometimes through a whole persona, so the reader must see through the speaker.
In the library: A Modest Proposal, Paragraph 9.
“a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food”
Swift’s projector proposes, in the calm voice of economic calculation, that the poor sell their children as food, exposing the coldness of reasoning about people as figures.
How to spot it: Look for a calm tone attached to an outrageous proposal, or praise that cannot be meant.
How to answer it fairly: Identify what the author actually means before agreeing or disagreeing; answering the literal sense misses the argument.
Hyperbole
Deliberate exaggeration for emphasis.
In the library: Gulliver's Travels, Part II, ch. 6.
“the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth”
The King of Brobdingnag sums up his verdict on Gulliver’s countrymen in deliberately enormous terms.
How to spot it: Ask what the literal, measured version of the claim would be.
How to answer it fairly: Grant the point the exaggeration is making and qualify the excess.